Kapiolani
Community College Horizons 2001
Kapiolani
Community College
Horizons 2001
India is a vast land made up of numerous cultural groups, each with their own language. There are fifteen primary languages, each with its own script, as well as one hundred and seventy minor languages and over five hundred dialects (Bossert, 1974). These languages originated from one common source: Sanskrit. Sanskrit is one of the world’s most ancient and complex languages, but threatened by the unrelenting juggernaut of modernity the future of Sanskrit is tenuous.
At around 2000 B.C. Vedic civilization was thriving in India (Cardona, 1990). At the top of the social hierarchy were the brahmanas or priests (Southworth, 1978). They lived a rigid life dedicated to ritual and prayer, the tenets of which were passed on orally from guru to disciple in a process called parampara (Protopapas, 1998; Gerow, 1973). During a period of one thousand years their philosophy on creation and their discourses on universal laws were compiled into a series of texts known as the Vedas and the Upanishads (Bossert, 1974).
The style of script used became known as Devanagari and the language is known as Vedic Sanskrit (Basham, 1959). This was a language so esoteric and protected that it was enshrouded with a certain mysticism and imbued with unearthly power. To use the proper grammar and pronunciation, and to utter the syllables in the correct order was to have even the gods at your command (Southworth, 1978; Brown, 1959). In certain cases an unsuccessful ritual meant death for the priest.
Vedic Sanskrit was never spoken by the masses but it acted as the common language for religious scholars throughout India (Southworth, 1978). In this way, despite the broad diversity of languages and cultures stretching across India, the brahmanas and their common knowledge of Sanskrit created a cohesive network that bound the entire country together (Bossert, 1974; Basham, 1959).
In time, as with all languages, aspects of Sanskrit grammar changed forming a new kind of Sanskrit called Classical Sanskrit (Bhargava, 1971). This was a language of art, producing literature, epics, poetry and drama. Still, only the elite had command of the language. Two world famous epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were written in these first centuries B.C. (Basham, 1959). The heart of the Mahabharata, known as the Bhagavad-gita or Song of God is a philosophical discussion on the purpose of life and acts as a Bible for the Hindus (Prabhupada, 1983).
In the fourth century B.C. a grammarian, Panini, wrote a thorough linguistic analysis on Sanskrit (Riencourt, 1986). This helped preserve the language that at several times in history was on the brink of extinction. In the sixth century B.C., during Buddha’s time, Sanskrit had become a dead language. Buddha wanted his teachings spread in the language of the masses, which Sanskrit was certainly not. Vernacular forms of Sanskrit called Prakrits, which led to modern languages of India such as Hindi, became popular. Again Sanskrit suffered a sharp blow in the thirteenth century A.D. when Muslims converged on India and did away with priests and Sanskrit. A new hybrid descending from Sanskrit and Persian arose. This new language, known as Urdu gained popularity and but for Paninis Sanskrit grammar texts, the language would have vanished.
When the British arrived in India, they discoverd the Vedic scriptures as well as Panini’s linguistic documents (Riencourt, 1986). Europe was enthralled by the discovery. Linguists such as the prodigious scholar Sir William Jones, who had command of more than a dozen languages, noticed the resemblance between Sanskrit and other European languages (Basham, 1959; Chandra, 1980). According to Howard Resnick, a Sanskrit scholar and professor of Indo-European studies at UCLA, a controversy exists as to whether European languages were derived from Sanskrit or whether the languages are cousins (personal communication, October 2, 2000). The very origins of Sanskrit are in question. Did the Aryans bring Sanskrit to India when they arrived around 1500 B.C. or was Sanskrit already indigenous to north western India in the Kashmir area? The debate continues even today.
British curiosity over Indian culture instigated the translation of Sanskrit texts and helped them gain popularity both in the west and as a literary revival in India (Riencourt, 1986; Bossert, 1974). The British promoted Sanskrit study but ironically the higher class Indians saw this move as counter productive in progressing toward modernity, and they resisted exploring their traditional roots.
What quality of Sanskrit made it so compelling to Westerners? Why would anyone maintain an interest in Sanskrit in this day and age? For one, language and culture go hand in hand. Secondly, the grammar is rich and the philology intriguing to linguists. To study Sanskrit is to study an ancient system of life, one of the only cultures that has endured continuously into modern times (Basham, 1959). Although Vedic culture has passed its zenith, devout followers still congregate from all over India at places of pilgrimage, and the brahmanas though from north, south, east and west, can still communicate with each other via the language of the scriptures.
As aforementioned, linguists are intrigued by the beauty of Sanskrit. The language consists of twenty-five consonants, thirteen vowels, four semi-vowels, and several other signs (Cardona, 1990). The language is a cornucopia of derivational and inflectional affixes, including infixes, and they join together in numerous complex ways. A simple example involves the word madhumat, “sweet” (p. 460):
madhumat + tara quite sweet
madhumat + tama exceedingly sweet
As far as syntax is concerned, Sanskrit is an Indo-European language with structures much like German (Riencourt, 1986). Some examples of syntax follow (Cardona, 1990 p.467):
devadattah katam karoti
“Devadatta is making a mat”
Devadatta [a mat] [is making]
In the passive the sentence would be:
devadattena katah kriyate
by Devadatta [a mat] [is being made]
Not only are the technical aspects and scientific study of Sanskrit engaging, but even to a layman the script has aesthetic merit and the sound is fascinating. One unusual example of a Sanskrit verse consists of only one consonant (Basham, 1959 p.423):
dadado dudda-dud-dadi
dadado duda-di-Åda-doh
du-dadam dadade dudde
dad’-adada-dado ’da-dah
“ The giver of gifts, the giver of grief to his foes, the bestower of purity, whose arm destroys the givers of grief, the destroyer of demons, bestower of bounty on generous and miser alike, raised his weapon against the foe.”
The above example is one of many literary techniques that could never apply to the English language. Another example is in the area of compound nouns. In English a word might be composed of up to three, while in Sanskrit chains of twenty to thirty are not uncommon, as in this example :
atma-nivedana-kany’-upayana-dana-garutmad-anda-sva-visaya-bhukti-sasana-yacan’-ady-upaya-seva-krta-bahu-virya-prasara-dharani-bandhasy (Basham, 1959 pp. 389-390).
This is one single word which refers to the emperor as “binding together the whole world by putting forth his strength and by [accepting] acts of service [from other kings], such as paying personal homage, the presentation of gifts of maidens, and soliciting his charter, sealed with the Garuda-seal, to confirm them in possession of their territories.” Sometimes in this type of form, a single sentence will stretch on for three typed pages.
The very thought processes and concepts behind the Sanskrit language make translating Sanskrit to produce its precise meaning in English not possible (Basham, 1959). Professor Resnick provided me with one small example of this. The Sanskrit counterpart of the English word “love” consists of more than twelve different words to express the sentiment.
Because Sanskrit primarily deals with spiritual concepts, the terms of love have a divine connotation unlike our material understanding of the concept of love. Some examples of love:
Sakhya-rasa is love based on friendship.
Santa-rasa is neutral love.
Dasya-rasa is love in servitude.
Vatsalya-rasa is parental love.
Srnagara-rasa is conjugal love.
Madhurya-rasa is the deepest conjugal love.
There are yet more words to express further forms of love such as fraternal love, and love in the mood of happiness, compassion, anger, chivalry, dread, astonishment, lamentation, enthusiasm, and even ghastliness. This minute example of the possibilities of the single word ’love’ is but the tiniest drop of the depth and complexity of Sanskrit.
There are numerous unique characteristics of Sanskrit, but most are covered by terminology that only an experienced linguist can decipher. As far as the alphabet, Vedic Sanskrit had a tonal quality expressed in accented syllables (Basham, 1959). This quality was not retained by Classical Sanskrit. The Devanagari consists of sets of consonants pronounced using phonology with which the speaker of English is not familiar. The characters:
ta tha da dha na
are called cerebrals and are pronounced with the tip of the tongue at the roof of the mouth while:
ta tha da dha na
are dentals and are pronounced with the tongue against the teeth (Basham, 1959 p.387; Thakura, 1991 p.129). For an English-speaking person, these differences in sound are too subtle to discern (Basham, 1959). Also difficult for a foreigner to Sanskrit is the ability to distinguish between the consonant sound and its aspirated neighbor, e.g.
ka and kha or ga and gha
(Basham, 1959 p.387; Thakura, 1991 p.129).
These different examples provide a small taste of the study of Sanskrit. Thanks to Panini’s texts on Sanskrit grammar, Sanskrit is still available to us today and is avidly researched by people who are drawn to its linguistic appeal. In fact, Europe’s discovery of Panini’s book on Sanskrit grammar initiated the modern day science of linguistics (Riencourt, 1986; Basham, 1959). Even now in the west, universities offer Sanskrit as part of the curriculum. In India brahmanas still congregate at holy sites for Vedic discourse, but this tradition looks bleak for future generations. The tide of modernization bulldozes everything in its path; thus traditional Sanskrit verges on obsolete.
Even in Varanasi, India’s cultural and academic hub, Sanskrit is being relegated to the sidelines while the emphasis is on more lucrative fields of study such as English (Protopapas, 1998). Government schools teach Sanskrit, but at best, students have only apathetic interest. To remove Sanskrit study from its twenty-four hour a day environment of minutiae and ritual that complements it, is to uproot the tradition. When students can wear Western style clothes and get a modern education, of what use to them is Sanskrit?
Some Hindu gurus remain optimistic nevertheless. Despite the blaring, sensuous cinema music wafting across the courtyard, traditional Sanskrit teachers instruct the young brahmacaris, students in gurukula (disciplined schooling). The boys live in the simple facility of the guru’s house and spend their days dedicated to Sanskrit study and the strict regiment which such study necessitates.
Sanskrit is integral to brahmanical culture, but with the rise in secular education in India, interest in Sanskrit is waning. Language and culture are inseparable, a phenomenon which is being recognized here in Hawai’i regarding the Hawaiian language. Clayton Hee, a member of OHA (Office of Hawaiian Affairs), and concerned with the endurance of Hawaiian culture, proclaims, “I firmly believe that our language is our survival” (TenBruggencate, 2000). Similarly the Sanskrit language is the key to the survival of a great and ancient culture.
sarvasya caham hrdi sannivisto
mattah smrtir jnanam apohanam ca
vedais ca sarvair aham eva vedyo
vedanta-krd veda vid eva caham
“I am seated in everyone’s heart, and from Me come remembrance, knowledge and forgetfulness. By all the Vedas, I am to be known. Indeed, I am the compiler of Vedanta, and I am the knower of the Vedas.”
~Bhagavad-gita (15.15)
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