Kapiolani
Community College Horizons 2001
Kapiolani
Community College
Horizons 2001
ORIGINS OF TAPA
The making of barkcloth or tapa was widespread throughout Polynesia, with its
origins dating back to 6th century B.C. China. Reports also mention the use
of barkcloth in the 3rd century A.D., where people of the Yangtze Kiang used
to beat the bark of the fu or paper mulberry to make cloth. There, as in other
parts of the Pacific, the source of the highest quality tapa was from a species
of the family Moraceae, Broussonetia papyrifera or paper mulberry tree. This
species is not indigenous to the Pacific but to Asia, where it grows throughout
the continent. From China, tapa-making spread to Vietnam, Burma and Thailand,
making its way through Indonesia and, by way of traders and immigrants, throughout
Polynesia. Cuttings of the paper mulberry also traveled with migrants and were
then cultivated primarily for the manufacture of tapa.
In addition to the paper mulberry tree, the Artocarpus or breadfruit tree, which
was introduced into Polynesia in prehistoric times, was also used as a source
of bark for tapa making. Two Ficus species were utilized as well; however, the
tapa produced from these trees was of lower quality, making the paper mulberry
generally preferred. The mamaki of the Pipturus species was also popular for
use in Hawai‘i.
The term tapa is used to denote Polynesian barkcloth and was originally limited
to the areas of Hawai‘i and Mangareva. In Hawai‘i, the word kapa,
from the traditional Hawaiian vocabulary, is used. It also means edge, border
or boundary. Similar translations into native language are found in Samoa, the
Marquesas Islands, Tahiti, Fiji and Tonga as siapo, hiapo, ahu, ngatu and masi,
respectively. Tapa was originally introduced in the early nineteenth century
as the general term used by whalers collecting items acquired while in Polynesia
and has been generally accepted as the word for barkcloth from this region as
well as from Indonesia, Africa and South America, where barkcloth was also manufactured.
Although the climate did not necessitate the wearing of clothing in many parts
of this region, it was used as protection from the wind and rain and warmth
in cooler seasonal conditions and elevations. It was also used in a variety
of manners from clothing and bed coverings to decoration for masks and ritual
objects, depending upon the region or island. Primarily made by women, tapa
thrived as a means of creative expression, and while it had once been looked
upon as little more than a craft, tapa has been recognized as a truly respected
art form.
As tapa-making spread throughout Polynesia, the manufacturing techniques shared
many common elements. However, it is with the designs, patterns and uses that
the similarities end and the differences among the regions begin.
MANUFACTURE OF KAPA IN HAWAI‘I
The Reverend William Ellis described the women of Kailua-Kona making kapa in
his “Narrative of a Tour Through Hawai’i” published in 1826.
He wrote, “The fabrication of it shows both invention and industry; and
whether we consider its different textures, its varied and regular patterns,
its beautiful colours, so admirably preserved by means of the varnish, we are
at once convinced that the people who manufacture it are neither deficient in
taste, nor incapable of receiving the improvements of civilized society.
Wauke, or paper mulberry, was cultivated for making kapa. It produced some of
the finest-quality tapa known. Mamaki was also used, as it grew wild in Hawai‘i;
it was not available on other islands in Polynesia. The kapa it produced was
not as soft as that produced from the wauke and was, by and large, used for
making traditional garments.
After the wauke trees had grown to a height of 6-10 feet, they were cut. The
outer bark was removed, allowing the inner bark to be scraped and then soaked
in a sea-salt bath for about 10 days, or until the material was soft enough
to work with. While soaking, the material also acquired the desired white tint.
Unlike the wauke, mamake was soaked in fresh water and did not have the same
white shade.
The bark was removed from the water, and at this stage was called mo‘omo‘o.
It was given an initial beating with a round, club-shaped mallet (hohoa) on
a stone anvil (kua pohaku). The long, wide strips that were the result of this
process were then combined into groups of about five and soaked for an additional
amount of time.
Special houses (hale kua) were used for tapa making, and out of respect to the
gods, were considered kapu (taboo) to anyone not involved in the kapa-making
process. The tools included the square tapa beater (i‘e kuku) and the
anvil, of which there were two kinds: stone, used during the first phase and
wood, used for further processing. The wooden anvil (kua kuku) was generally
6 feet long, with a hollow underside that, when pounded, was highly resonant.
As kapa could not be washed, it was in steady demand and was therefore always
in the process of being made.
Aurally, it was a constant in the lives of indigenous people, not just as a
noise but also as a communicative activity. The beating sound produced could
be heard for a great distance. In fact, in Hawai‘i the legendary character
Kamoeau was said to be able to learn everything about a woman merely from having
heard her beating.
The beaters were made from wood with round handles and small grooves on each
of the four sides. Depending upon the point in the beating process, the beater
used was either coarsely grooved or finely grooved. Beating macerated the fibers
together, insuring the fusion of the layered strips.
During the 19th century, kapa making in Hawai‘i reached its highest technical
level. Hawaiian woodcarvers utilized newly acquired metal tools to make the
beaters, carving them with a wide variety of designs which were used to watermark
the surface of the kapa. This watermarking technique was unique to Hawai‘i
although it did have its counterpart in the eastern Indonesian Island of Sulawesi,
where a heightened level of technical advancement was also taking place. When
finished, the kapa was spread in the sun to dry or bleach.
DECORATING KAPA: COLORING AND SCENTING
The vast quantity of flora available to Hawaiians afforded them a wide range
of colors with which to decorate, making their kapa unique for this reason.
The dye was prepared either as a liquid or powder, depending upon the species
being used. The bark of the kukui or candlenut tree (Aleurites moluccana) was
the main source of brown dye, and black dye was also obtained from the kukui
root, nuts and rind. The koka tree (Bischoffia sp.) was also a source of brown
dye. Shades of yellow were obtained from the fruit pulp of the nanu (Gardenia
remyi) and tumeric or Ølena (Curcuma longa). Red dye was provided by
the bark of the kukui, the bark of the noni (Morinda citrifolia), leaves of
the pala‘a (Stenolome sp.) and from the lipstick tree (Bixa orellana).
Noni, in particular, was used for coloring a special kind of tapa called maluna,
which was reserved for chiefs and therefore made under conditions of strict
kapu.
To these basic colors they added green, blue and gray, which were obtained from
vegetable sources. A shade of light lavender was obtained from the sea urchin
(‘ina). Three additional colors, unique to Hawai‘i, were used in
post-contact Hawaii. They included the juice of the ‘akaka or endemic
raspberry (Rubus hawaiiensis), which produced a rose shade (as did lime mixed
with roots of noni); ma‘o leaves (Hawaiian cotton) which produced a light
green shade; and blue, derived either from mixing lime with ‘uki‘uki
berries (an endemic species of lily) or from various parts of the ‘Ølapa
(Cheiro dendron trigynum). Generally, the dyes were applied not by total immersion
but rather as a paint or ink after the kapa had been watermarked and dried.
Scented kapa is another unique characteristic of tapa manufactured by the Hawaiians.
This was accomplished by either adding perfume during the dying process or perfuming
the finished product. Plants from a variety of species with fragrant elements
were used for this purpose. They included ‘Ølapa bark, niu flowers,
laua‘e leaves, kupaoa leaves, mokihana fruit, maile leaves, sandalwood
and kamani flowers and sap. Some of the plant materials were often used to scent
the storage containers that held the kapa.
DECORATING KAPA & TECHNIQUES OF ORNAMENTATION
Several methods of applying dye to the natural white color of kapa were used
in Hawai‘i and they include painting, overlaying and cord snapping. However,
the technique most unique to Hawaiian kapa was block printing or stamping, which
produced a more sophisticated decoration.
Kapa Stamps
The first blocks or stamps were carved from pieces of wood and whittled down
with stone tools. Bamboo (‘ohe) quickly replaced wood when it was discovered
that it could easily be split and carved. The width was determined by the thickness
of the bamboo, generally no wider than .75 inch. The length was usually two-three
inches long.
These stamps were called ‘ohe kapala (‘ohe, bamboo, and kapala,
to stamp). A geometric design, one of chevrons, circles or triangles, was carved
into the inner surface. The stamps produced a very large number of patterns
and variations. A pattern would be applied carefully in an unbroken line creating
continuous repetition. This technique of block printing was unique to Hawai‘i
although there is record of it occurring, like the watermark technique, on the
Indonesian Island of Sulawesi. Although less common, the ends of kalo petioles
and hala drupes were either dipped in ink or dye and used for creating small
semicircles or dots or used as small paintbrushes.
Kapa liners
Bamboo or kauila wood was used to make the instruments for printing straight
lines on kapa. They range from a single-line liner to multiple-line liners,
with a blade divided into five prongs. Unlike pens, these liners were first
dipped in the dye, then pressed, like the bamboo stamps to create a variety
of patterns and parallel lines, often producing a plaid design.
Kapa decoration and manufacture reached its zenith following contact with the
West, when Hawaiian women were exposed to European woven fabrics. The kapa manufactured
after 1778 was delicate and gauzy compared to kapa that was produced prior to
that time. Techniques were developed to imitate a lace-like kapa, which is now
very rare. To achieve this look, fibers were pushed apart; creating holes in
the kapa, and unlike other styles, was not dyed but kept a natural cream-white
color.
DIVERSE USES OF TAPA IN HAWAI‘I
In ancient Hawai‘i, life had few aspects in which bark cloth was not used
in some form or another, and therefore kapa made in huge quantities. One of
the three most common clothing garments for which it was used was the malo (loincloth)
of which there were various kinds, each having its own name which was sometimes
related to the patterns and motifs printed on them. Certain patterns, such as
kupeke and puíali, which is translated as “compressed,” “constricted
in the middle,” “slender abdominal stalk on a wasp’s body,”
suggests that the puíali motif consisted of the hourglass figure. The
color often determined the name of the malo, such as the malo kua ula, literally
“red bark,” whose red material was obtained from the bark of the
noni.
As an example of ceremonial importance, a kapa malo, worn by the king, played
an important role in the initiation of the heiau or sacred place to the god
Ku. This ceremony was called the kaioloa, because the malo had been bleached
in salt water or kai-oloa. Female chiefs would carry long strips of the king’s
malo, which were therefore imbued with his mana, into the heiau, where it would
be wrapped around a figure of Ku. Thus, the loincloth of the ruler, which bore
his mana, truly made the heiau a sacred place.
Kapa was also used for pa‘u (skirts), which were dyed and printed in a
fashion similar to malo, the name referring to the particular color or pattern
of the kapa. For example, pa‘u kamalena referred to the skirt that was
dyed with tumeric. These were worn as ordinary day clothing. Additionally, there
were two ceremonial pa‘u worn— the pa‘u hula, for hula ceremony
and a long pa‘u worn by high-ranking women, which had been known to reach
up to 1000 feet in length.
The third most common garment made of kapa was the kihei, which was a cape worn
over the left shoulder and fastened with a knot on the opposite shoulder.
A large percentage of kapa was manufactured for bed coverings or kapa moe (moe,
to sleep). Often, these consisted of several layers of kapa stitched together
on one side but open on the other, allowing the user to adjust the layers needed
depending upon the desired temperature. Generally, the upper layer or kilohana
was the only one decorated.
Other practical uses of kapa included house partitions, protection against mosquitoes
(sheer kapa was beaten to serve as nets after mosquitoes were introduced), floor
coverings (the thicker variety) and wicks for stone lamps. Bandages and kites
were also made of kapa, and it was used as book binding during the early missionary
days. A sheet of kapa was placed over the bride and bridegroom at the marriage
ceremony (ho’ao) of young ali’i.
TAPA IN POLYNESIA
While it is true that tapa was generally made by women to fulfill the constant
demand for clothing, to say that tapa was primarily a domestic, decorative feminine
art form would be a highly exaggerated and narrow oversimplification. The process
of manufacturing tapa varied little throughout Polynesia, with more variation
seen in decoration than in its uses, which were distinct and diverse.
Its most common use was as cloth for a range of garments, yet tapa has been
associated with the life- cycle, kinship, ceremonial exchange and ritual. In
Fiji, for example, its use in ceremonial presentation, such as marriage, flourishes
today. Large-scale production of tapa took place in Tahiti, where groups of
several hundred women would manufacture large pieces of cloth for ceremonial
presentations. In this case, a special highly bleached, undecorated tapa was
made and subsequently stored in the homes of chiefs, to be used to decorate
his body upon death. Likewise, in Tonga, mainly people of high status used this
special undecorated tapa, usually as turbans.
In western Polynesia, the ceremonial practice of exchanging valuables highlights
another particularly important manner in which large pieces of tapa were used.
In Fiji, the ceremonial presentation of tapa would occur at marriages, and at
births for swaddling infants. Shamans would induce spiritual possession by wrapping
themselves in long pieces of the bark cloth. These large-scale pieces were looked
upon in a collective context, as representation of a group’s joint participation.
On Easter Island or Rapa-Nui, wooden or wicker-frame deities would be wrapped
in tapa, believing it provided a vehicle for the deity’s access or presence
and was used presumably for ritual purposes. Wrapping the corpse of leaders
or chiefs was also a common use of tapa, as seen in Hawai‘i, where the
bones of the ali‘i were wrapped in special tapa before burial. Another
example of the significance of tapa in rituals can be demonstrated by a ceremony
in Samoa during which bark cloth is utilized during the defloration of a virgin
bride. These examples make obvious the importance of tapa used during progression
from one phase of life to another.
THE DECLINE OF KAPA MAKING IN HAWAI‘I
Two important factors contributed to the demise in kapa-making in Hawai‘i:
the enthusiasm with which cotton was received after its introduction by Europeans,
and the function of tapa in ceremony and religion, which was severely attacked
by the missionaries. The only remaining function of tapa, identifying those
of rank, did little to sustain its production and soon it became a lost art.
Only recently has kapa-making in Hawai‘i been revived, and still only
marginally. The many beautiful examples of this traditional art are now only
available to merely be admired in museums, reminding us of tapa’s historical
importance in the lives of the Hawaiians and other indigenous peoples throughout
the world.
Editor’s Note: The Master to Apprentice Program sponsored by the State
Foundation on Culture and the Arts is encouraging the revival of tapa making.
For an example of tapa created today under the auspices of this program, see
the photograph on the back cover of this journal.
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