Kapiolani
Community College Horizons 2002
Kapiolani
Community College
Horizons 2002
by Christopher Brantley
To many people outside of Thailand King Mongkut has become the archetype of the “noble savage.” These people view him as a vain, boisterous man with a love of polygamy and an unsympathetic attitude. This “knowledge” of King Mongkut comes from the popular yet distorted lens of a camera, a courtesy of Hollywood. The King and I and the fairly recent movie Anna and the King attempt to portray this well-loved and deeply respected king in a way that is both palatable and amusing for the audience. While undoubtedly succeeding in that capacity, the image they leave in the mind of the viewers is defamation of character. Anna Leonowens’ recycled information of her experiences of the court has turned this king, who was instrumental in the shaping of modern Thailand, into a gross stereotype. The films, based solely on her account of Siam, are biased and portray Siam through the perspective of a British gentlewoman with a rather condescending attitude.
The purpose of this paper is not to refute Mrs. Leonowen’s claims or to challenge her credibility. While my research has revealed some very interesting and revealing aspects of Ms. Leonowen’s personality, my goal in this paper is to focus on the personality of King Mongkut by revealing his accomplishments and contributions to the state of Siam.
King Mongkut was born on the October 17, 1804. He was the second son of King Rama II of the Chakri Dynasty, who ascended to the throne in 1809. He was given the traditional royal education that included studying Siamese and Pali literature (the language used in Theravada Buddhist scriptures), the basic tenets of Buddhism, moral conduct, Siamese history, and the art of war. However, his learning of the world beyond the borders of Siam was very poor as his father and his grandfather (King Rama I) both maintained a policy of isolation from the west: “Europe and England were to him then hearsay, and America was mere gossip” (Moffat 5). At the age of 12, Prince Mongkut’s father King Rama II took direct control over his son’s education and versed his son in the intricacies of language and poetry. King Rama II is considered to be one of Siam’s greatest poets, and his influence on the young Mongkut undoubtedly shaped his appreciation for language.
At the age of 14, Prince Mongkut began his interaction with the Buddhist monkhood by becoming a novice for seven months, as was customary for most children born of noble families. Seeking to firmly establish his knowledge of Buddhist scriptures, the prince returned to the monkhood at the age of 20, at which point in his life he was already married and the father of two children. A short while after Prince Mongkut was ordained, his father died without warning, leaving the throne vacant and without an heir specified. A royal council convened to decide who would succeed, and Prince Mongkut’s elder half brother was chosen. Prince Mongkut remained in the order of monks for the next 27 years.
Prince Mongkut’s time as a monk can be accurately labeled a complete reversal from his former life. He went from living in the luxury of the palace to waking up every morning to beg for food. This practice, however, did connect him to the people of Siam in a way few royals were able to connect. As author A.B. Griswold states, “His travels gave him a knowledge of geography that was rare in those days of poor communications, while his friendly talks with the people gave him an insight into their minds and needs such as few rulers ever attain” (13). The Prince also continued his study of Pali in order to truly understand the Buddhist scriptures. After three years of intensive research and learning he received a degree and a thorough understanding of Buddhist scripture. The Prince also learned Latin from the French Bishop Monsignor Pallegoix, who helped him compose a Siamese-Latin-French-English Dictionary. Through contact with American Missionaries, Prince Mongkut learned to write and speak English fluently, though not always correctly. His exposure to these Western influences also sparked his interest in modern science. The missionaries helped Mongkut in his studies, particularly in astronomy and geography, his main areas of interest.
Prince Mongkut’s experience in the order of monks also taught him the urgent need for religious reform. Through his diligence and determination during his monkhood, many necessary religious reforms took place. A group of monks from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) came to Siam in 1840 to visit King Rama III and stayed at the temple where Mongkut was abbot. After unsuccessfully trying to visit Ceylon, the Prince sent a delegation of five monks who returned in 1842 with a loan of forty volumes of scriptures. These scriptures were copied and translated to assist the Siamese order of monks in returning to the true roots of Buddhism. Another mission was sent that returned with thirty more volumes of scriptures as well as forty Singhalese priests who assisted in the reformation of the order. The Prince also sought to dispel and remove much of the erroneous mythology that existed within the monkhood and the scriptures. He “constantly purged and revised Buddhist texts so that they would conform to truth in the scientific age, and rejected all the books which had no semblance of truth in them” (Manich 30). Mongkut also established the Dharmayukti Sect, which followed strict rules of conduct and has since spread to Burma, Laos and Cambodia. In the end, the monkhood provided Prince Mongkut with “an acute sense of reality and a knowledge of people he could not have possibly have got amid the artificialities of palace life” (Griswold 13)
King Rama III, Prince Mongkut’s half-brother, died in 1851 and on April 3, 1851 Prince Mongkut ascended to the throne. The Kingdom he took over was very different from the one he would leave behind for his son. While the reforms enacted by King Mongkut were not extraordinarily revolutionary, they did help open the door for his son, King Chulalongkorn, to enact huge reforms and large-scale modernization.
King Mongkut’s exposure to the western world through his meetings with Bishop Pallegoix and numerous other missionaries made him realize that reform was essential for the prosperity and survival of his kingdom. However, he faced opposition from conservative nobles who, fearing a loss of power through modernization, clung to the established order and kept a stern watch over the actions of the King. The average Siamese citizen, after two kings whose reigns were marked by isolation from the West, had become somewhat xenophobic, fearing that any change would result in the loss of old values and traditions. The King, therefore, had to proceed delicately in proposing the reforms and instituting them. The printing press was introduced to Thailand by the West. Mongkut realized early on the potential benefits of the printing press. As M.L. Manich states in his book King Mongkut and Sir John Bowring:
Mongkut foresaw the revolution in spreading education by this means and had a new printing press with Pali characters established in his monastery in 1836. When he became king in 1851 the press was moved into the Grand Palace for the use of his own printing and for the printing of the official Gazette. This was therefore the first official printing press to be established in Thailand. (30)
The King also instituted other measures in his attempt to revolutionize and remodel the education system within Siam. He introduced formalized education and encouraged its development. The King, undoubtedly to the frustration of the more misogynistic members of the nobility, was also the first king to promote education for women. This is shown by his attempt to educate the women of the court by asking the wives of missionaries to teach them English. Unfortunately, this was unsuccessful due to the fact that the students were “getting tired of the teaching, because the teachers had the intention only of converting them, gradually introduced pictures from the Bible, taught from religious texts, and taught them against the horrible practice of polygamy” (Manich 31).
The King also established the first museum and library within Siam. As a monk he had often wandered about the ruins of the former kingdom of Sukhothai, a practice that fostered his interest in archaeology. During his reign, King Mongkut invited French archaeologists to come to Siam to excavate the ruins at Sukhothai so that the Siamese people might finally understand their significance and place in Thai history. Through his support and encouragement the library and museum grew to such an extent that extra buildings were needed to house them.
The King also began many reforms in regards to the infrastructure of his kingdom. These reforms would enable his son Chulalongkorn to improve upon them unimpeded by either the nobility or the civilian population. With the aid of foreign advisers, King Mongkut began reforms in many areas that concerned the future of the Siamese Kingdom. He constructed new roads and waterways to facilitate faster and more efficient travel throughout the kingdom. In fact, the first road that the King built is still in use. King Mongkut also began the construction of many new buildings that incorporated both Western styles and the indigenous Siamese style. Some of these buildings have survived to this day and serve as an example of the artistry involved. These construction projects were done in an almost complete reversal of old practice, by paid laborers rather than the traditional feudal “corvee” (Moffat 26).
The navy and mercantile shipping forces of Siam were also remodeled and modernized by the King. Under the direction of foreign shipwrights, modern ships were built to supplement the traditional Siamese galleys. Bishop Pellegoix in his book, Description of the Thai Kingdom or Siam under King Mongkut, describes the new Siamese navy in detail: “The navy of the King of Siam consists of about 500 war ships and twenty European-style ships four of which are frigates and sixteen corvettes or war brigs” (169). These ships, Pellegoix goes on to report, were usually under the command of European officers who trained their crews diligently. Foreign advisers also served as the commanders of the regiments and units that they trained within the army and aided in the reformation. With the aide of English officers, a standing army of “more or less ten thousand regular troops of infantry and artillery trained every day by English officers in handling weapons and military movements” (Pellegoix 165) was established with modern armaments.
King Mongkut also brought to Siam the first inklings of democracy. The king had decided to put in place a notion that had hitherto been unheard of in Siam: judges were elected into office rather then appointed as according to tradition. A council of princes and officials elected the judges and “the King let it be known that he regarded any suitable man as worthy of that high office, ’even though he be a slave’” (Blofeld, 63).
New legislation was enacted and laws that previously would have been unheard of were put into place. The King put forward edicts that would limit the power of the nobility and make them accountable for their actions, even against commoners. “The special privileges of the princes, nobles and high officials were broken to some extent by making everybody equal before the lay and by encouraging commoners to bring complaints against the privileged classes directly to the king” (Blofeld 63). This is in itself remarkable, as previously the nobles had received a carte blanche in their conduct. They were now expected to behave according to the law in the same manner as the commoners. Laws were also brought into effect improving the status of women and children (Moffat 27). King Mongkut also set in place many reforms regarding slavery that paved the way for the eventual abolition of slavery by his son King Chulalongkorn. The edicts he issued in regard to slavery are well described in a passage by Abbot Low Moffat as follows:
One of them limits the conditions under which dependents could be sold into slavery. Another eliminates the loopholes from the law requiring the master to accept the redemption money if it was offered. This was obviously a great protection, because if a slave did not like his master he could nearly always borrow the redemption money from someone else and enter that person’s service“ (35).
These laws were to aid slaves who with abusive masters, though the system of slavery in Siam differed greatly from that practiced in western countries at the time. This slavery was more akin to indentured servitude than flat out exploitation, though any slavery is undoubtedly an unfavorable situation.
The King, who bore himself as a paternal monarch, also pushed aside many traditions that distanced the King from the people. The King, since the time of Ayutthya, had been regarded as a God-King; one of the King’s titles was ”The Lord of Life.“ The relations between the King and his subjects before King Mongkut had been more similar to that of the relationship the Pharaohs of Egypt had with their subjects. Before his reign, it was traditional for people in Siam to hide from the presence of the King. Those who were seen by him were often treated severely by the police. The King issued an edict that reversed this policy and allowed those that wished to see him to do so without fear of repercussions. The King was also sensitive to the wants of foreigners and decreed that they were allowed to welcome the King in the manner befitting them and their customs, meaning that they would no longer have to prostrate themselves before him, as was tradition. This shows incredible sensitivity to other cultures as many foreigners found prostration offensive. King Mongkut, also in showing his great affection for his people, initiated a policy in which members of the public could bring their petitions to the King personally, who at designated times would come out of the palace and receive them. The edicts and policies issued by the King speak to his tolerance, and in numerous addresses to his people he encouraged and even ordered them to be tolerant in regards to foreigners and religion by proclaiming that ”no just ruler restricts the freedom of his people in the choice of their religious belief, wherewith each man hopes to find strength and salvation in his last hour as the future beyond” (S. Pramoj and K. Pramoj 29).
The King’s attitude towards the reformation of trade and economic policy also was extremely progressive. The King established the Royal Mint that produced the first flat coinage and a uniform monetary system. King Mongkut’s many economic reforms include: “a thorough reform of the unwieldy tax structure; a requirement making it binding on tax collectors to issue pamphlets setting forth the scales of legal tariffs, the granting to merchants of royal permission to make use of foreign coins to compensate for the inability of the royal mint to produce the modern Siamese currency in sufficient quantity to meet the rapidly expanding foreign exchange demand)” (Blofeld 65)
The King also opened up Siam to trade from the West. This was a wise decision in the face of the growing threat of European imperialism. Trade with the west had been conducted during the reign of King Rama III but had been monopolized by nobles and hampered by high tariffs and the great amount of restrictions placed on foreign transactions. The British attempted to send trade missions in order to open up the market in Siam but these had met with minimal success. King Mongkut, in contrast to his half-brother, reversed such policies, knowing that stagnating trade with the West might lead to the irritation of the colonial powers, which could place Siam in a perilous position. The King removed the monopolies that the nobles had enjoyed, much to their dismay, and welcomed Sir John Bowring, a British trade envoy, in signing new trade agreements with Britain. Mongkut also reduced foreign import duties and permitted the export of rice in order to stimulate good relations with the Western powers. These policy moves were done for a variety of reasons, but the most pressing at the time was undoubtedly pure survival.
King Mongkut was well aware of the precarious situation Siam was in during his reign. He had heard the news of the Opium war and the outcome that had slowly ceded China, piecemeal, to the imperialist powers of Europe. The King realized that in order to escape the fate that would eventually befall all of South East Asia he would have to modernize Siam and establish relations with Europe (and America to a degree) to garner recognition of Siam as a sovereign and respected state. He did this by establishing diplomatic relations with many countries. Treaties of commerce and friendship were signed with France, the United States, Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Prussia, the Hanseatic League, Italy, Austria and Belgium. King Mongkut also initiated correspondence with Pope Pius IX. Mongkut undoubtedly felt as though he needed to make up for lost time; he also realized that diplomacy was imperative if Siam was to survive in the age of imperialism.
At the time of King Mongkut’s ascension to the throne, the British had established themselves in Singapore and were also interfering with the affairs of the Malay states to the North. These Malay states at the time were vassals of Siam. The French were also making their presence known in what is now Vietnam and appeared to be courting the idea of annexing Cambodia, also a Siamese vassal. The King at the time was mostly worried about what the French might do as he considered them be the more unscrupulous in their dealings with the non-European world. Though tensions existed between the British and King Mongkut’s Siam, the king preferred the British to the French.
In 1855, the King and Sir John Bowring, the head of the British mission to Siam, agreed upon “a diplomatic and commercial treaty that was mutually advantageous to both countries.” (Blofeld 79) The result of this treaty was a great expansion of trade with the British. Seeing the great success that resulted from the treaties with the British, King Mongkut signed similar treaties with both the U.S. and France. In 1857 the King, in defiance of tradition, sent an embassy of high-ranking nobles to Queen Victoria, who received them cordially. Little was accomplished regarding either commerce or diplomacy but “as King Mongkut said himself, the mission had achieved its main objective, which was to ’put Siam on the map’ in the eyes of the Queen and Her Government” (Blofeld 80).
The issue of Cambodia and French aspirations in the region did come to the forefront in 1860 as Prince Norodom ascended to the throne of Cambodia. The encroachment of Britain in Burma and their continued meddling in the politics of the Malay states worried Siam and made the French even more anxious to expand. To counter this encroachment by France and Britain, King Mongkut dispatched ambassadors to both countries. The ambassadors to France hoped to be given assurances that France had no designs on Cambodia, but such assurances were not forthcoming. The French, after seizing Annam (a part of Vietnam), demanded that the Cambodians and their new king pay them the tribute that Annam had traditionally demanded from Cambodia. King Norodom saw no other recourse but to pay the tribute and turn Cambodia into a French protectorate. However, in a secret treaty with Siam, King Norodom reaffirmed his loyalty to King Mongkut. Unfortunately this “secret treaty” was brought to the attention of the French who were greatly displeased. To show their displeasure they treated King Mongkut and Siam with contempt. “Though it had been agreed that representatives of both France and Siam should place the crown upon King Norodom’s head, when it came to the point, the Siamese representative was not allowed to do, naturally King Mongkut was deeply concerned” (Blofeld 81)
In response to this French offense, King Mongkut began to actively court the favor of the British, in the hope that he might “play the one against the other” (Blofeld 81). King Mongkut also renounced his claim to Cambodia with assurances from the French that Angkor and Battambang (two Cambodian provinces) would remain in the hands of Siam. Meanwhile, the British continued their interference with Siamese vassals in the Malay states. When a successor had been chosen to ascend to the throne of the Sultanate of Tregganu and Pahang by Siam, the British, disregarding Siam’s suzerainty, supported his rival. The Siamese claimant was transported to Tregganu, which was then blockaded and bombarded by the British navy. The protests of the King and Siam against British naval action went unheeded for the time being, but the claimant supported by Siam was eventually allowed to take the throne.
Great distress erupted throughout Bangkok at the news of the British naval action in the Malay region. The situation worsened when the news arrived that the same British fleet responsible for the bombardment was sailing for Bangkok. However, this turned out to be merely a diplomatic visit and any fears the Siamese had of invasion were temporarily assuaged. Unfortunately, the British moved to swallow up Burma completely in 1866 in response to the expanding French presence. With these two rivals poised on all sides of Siam, King Mongkut continued his diplomatic efforts despite the actions of the European nations. He tried, though in vain, to be awarded a decoration by Queen Victoria in exchange for him presenting her with one. He did receive the Legion of Honor from the French Emperor as he continued to try and gain recognition and respect for the right of Siam to exist independent of foreign domination.
In the year 1868, the King, his court astrologers, several ladies and children of the court, scientists from France, government officials, and others interested in astrology traveled to the south of Siam to watch a total eclipse that the King had calculated would occur. His calculations were even more accurate than those of European astrologers. While there, the King contracted a fever that worsened with his return to Bangkok. Wanting to follow the Buddha’s example, the King wished to die upon the day of his birth but many believed that he would not last that long. Much to their astonishment he did, lasting from August until the very day of his birth in October. After giving some final advice on the succession and dictating his farewell message in Pali, on the 17th of October, 1868, King Mongkut, the fourth king of the Chakri dynasty, passed away.
It is my sincere hope that with this paper I was able to cast aside many of the myths and erroneous ideas that have surrounded King Mongkut, both the man and his legacy. He was a great leader whose wisdom and foresight helped Thailand emerge from the Age of Imperialism unscathed by the forces of domination. He was a revolutionary who had his people at heart, knowing full well that for change to be effective it must come in such a way that it can be sustained, so that it might last to bring about some greater good. However, my word of praise shall undoubtedly fall short of what Mongkut is due. The accomplishments of his life and the resulting legacy he has left with the Thai people speak volumes more. In ending I would like to quote Bishop Pallegoix, made the following statement upon the enthronement of King Mongkut.
“Prince Chao Fa (Mongkut) left his yellow robe and was enthroned under the name Somdet Phra Paramander Maha Mongkut, etc., this is His Majesty the King who wears the Great Crown. For twenty-five years the present sovereign of the Thai nation has patiently devoted himself to the study of Sanskrit, Pali, history, religion, geography, physics and chemistry, astronomy and, finally, of the English language. From his accession to the throne His majesty has made efforts to exercise his troops in European style, to dig canals, build roads and fortresses, construct ships, place orders for steamships and favor the arts, crafts and trade. He has established a royal printing press. He gives freedom of religious instruction to the various nations who compose the population of the Kingdom. In one word, everything foretells that his reign will be a remarkable era in the history of the Thai nation.”
BIBLIOGAPHY
Blofeld, J. KingMaha Mongkut of Siam. The Siam Society: Bangkok, 1987
Bristowe, W.S. Louis and the King of siam. Thai-American Publishers: New York, 1976.
Griswold, A.B. King Mongkut of Siam. The Asia Society: New York, 1961.
Manich, M.L.M. King Mongkut and Sir John Bowring. Chalermnit: Bankok, 1970.
Moffat, A. L. Mongkut, King of Siam. cornell University Press: Ithaca, 1961.
Pallegoix, J. B. Description of the Thai Kingom or Siam: Thailand under King Mongkut. What Lotus: Bangkok, 2000.
Pramoj, K. A King of Siam Speaks. The Siam Society: Bankok, 1987.
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